absolutes

specific principles (eg: life is sacred), rules (eg: do not kill), or values (eg: justice) which are regarded as invariably true and valid, irrespective of circumstances. Time and place, country culture and context, make no difference. Absolutes commonly derive directly from a source which is itself seen as having absolute authority. For Christians God is considered as the ultimate reference point for everything, the absolute of all absolutes. Some Christians go on the claim that this quality of absoluteness also belongs to such as the Bible, the Pope, a Church Council, or the individual conscience. Others warn of the danger of mistaking human expression, which is fallible, for God.

abuse

treatment of one individual by another in such a way that their humanity is disregarded and they are personally damaged. The most common usage until recently has related to the physical abuse of children by beating. In recent years the connotation has become overlaid with the connotation of sexual harm. The sense of moral outrage against this kind of invasion of children’s vulnerability, has led to extensive publicity being given to the dangers from paedophiles (literally ‘lovers of children’). The incidence of such activities on the part of priests and other Christian ministers has come as a major shock and embarrassment to the churches, all of which have now put in place independent monitoring arrangements. Less attention has been given to the sad fact that most abuse, including sexual abuse, still takes place within families. Although within Christianity there is a tradition of using physical punishment to discipline children, as well as adult sinners, there is no justification whatsoever for abuse in any form. Whoever is abused deserves release and special support. Abusers need special restraint and help. What healing is possible for those involved is impossible to predict, though mightily yearned for all comcerned.

altruism

care for others, which is independent of care for self, sometimes involving significant elements of personal sacrifice. This is typified by the unilateral loving lived out by Jesus and described in his story of the good Samaritan. It is further exemplified by care for the poor, the sick, or the socially disadvantaged, none of whom can necessarily provide any material reward in recognition of the kindness shown. Critics argue that in spite of appearances, altruistic behaviour is deep down actually self-serving. It ‘gives a buzz’, even though it may seem to be showing priority to another. One response to that is that it’s the helping that counts, all else is side effect - maybe pleasurable, but incidental.

anger

a basic emotion, with largely negative connotations as an opposite of love, hence its identification traditionally as one of the seven 'deadly sins'; certainly it can 'chew' both the hater and the hated. However, the extent and depth of evil may evoke strong anger, human or divine, and rightly so. God's anger against injustice is evident in the strength of judgement voiced by Old Testament Prophets, such as Amos and Hosea, or again in the incident of Jesus Cleansing the Temple or in the parable of the Sheep and the Goats.

anxiety

sense of uncertainty, experienced both individually and collectively, in differing degrees of intensity. It may become crippling through its neurotic accompaniments. destructive and terrifying. But it can also bring to the surface and advertise the everyday human capacity to take charge of living, to respond and be responsible.

asceticism

often associated with exercising control over bodily needs, through fasting and spartan living conditions. Literally, 'ascesis' is found in the discipline and training engaged in by the athlete or ballet dancer. This has become particularised in reference to the lifesyle associated with a monastic calling, or as democratised by Puritans. Applied more generally to Christian or other religious endeavour, it can refer to personal zeal and discipline to gain what is seen as good in life, or to facilitate concentration on spiritual dimensions and the elimination of its opposites.

authority

source of justification for particular beliefs, values and actions. It may be derived from scripture, from Christian tradition and community, or from individual conscience - or a combination of two or more of these. Social scientists commonly distinguish between different modes of authority: traditional - validated by inherited power and position; legal-rational even if also traditional, validated by reasoned argument; charismatic promoted by power of personality, as in prophetic appeal, challenging traditional establishment, and subsequently transposed into legal-rational. Authority in Christianity generally anti- authoritarian, because all authority is relative before God, and from the authority of God comes the promise of human freedom.

autonomy

rights and responsibilities of the individual to come to their own judgements and decisions regarding fundamental aspects of how, what and why they believe and do as they do; in sharp distinction from 'heteronomy' wherein views are externally determined, eg by parents, teachers, peer pressure, or insitutional religion. Autonomy can be developed in an exclusively self-centred way. That that need not need not be; thus, whilst valuing the importance of encouraging people to think for themselves, some Christian critics caution that this should still take account of the needs and interests of others.

blasphemy

extreme lack of reverence in words or deeds towards God, expressly disapproved in Biblical tradition, as in Second Commandment. The same sensitivity is behind the Jewish avoidance of any naming of God and the Muslim avoidance of any pictorial manifestation. Targets for the threat of blasphemy are sometimes seen as extending to the wider features and expressions of Christianity, and of other religions. However, Christians also point out that if God is God, any abuse is consumed by the force of love. The inclusion of swearing under the heading of blasphemy is perhaps best taken as a prompt to review those elements in human experience (including sex and excretion) which are felt to be so fundamental that we appeal to them in moments of exasperation, desperation or delight. Does that attribute to them religious/ultimate import?

canon law

rules formulated by the Christian community to express the preferred order of its corporate life. The tradition may be seen as beginning at the Council of Jerusalem, as recorded in the New Testament in Acts Ch 15. It is variously developed in councils of church leaders, in both Eastern (Orthodox) and Western (Catholic) Churches. With the overlap between Christendom and the countries of Europe, aspects of canon law also became civil law. Whilst that may continue in some respects, it cannot in all, and the need for restatements of distinctive church teachings has given rise to new versions of canon law, as found in both Anglican and Roman Catholic traditions. See http://canonlaw.anglican.org/

capitalism

social and economic order based on the belief that human good is best served by enterprise and competetive striving on the part of individuals and the organisations for whom they work. Specifically Christian inspiration for this is found in the gospel Parable of the Talents in which trade, investment and risk-taking appear to be commended by Jesus. According to Max Weber, it was the energy of the Protestant Ethic with its conviction that work and wealth generation are appropriate ways of worshipping God, which fuelled the Spirit of Capitalism to emerge as a world force in 16th century Europe. In spite of well documented abuses of commercial interest and evidence of a widening gap between rich and poor, this argument has been restated by Michael Novak. He has widened the theological rationale to include Catholicism, whilst insisting that the desirable order is democratic capitalism. This holds out a better prospect for addressing the needs of the poor globally, than any centrally controlled approach, with its dulling of individual initiative.

casuistry

the practice of applying moral principles to specific instances. Critics suggest that the process involves manipulating otherwise clear rules to suit the convenience of those who would prefer they were less strict. It would be fairer to see it as recognition that life is continually changing and the what is right and just is affected by particular circumstances. Such sensitivity is found in the Jewish tradition, seen in the teaching of Jesus in the gospels and deployed by successive generations of Christian leaders. Attempts to codify the applications have repeatedly been made, most notably in the Anglo-Saxon Church and more widely in Medieval Christendom and then by the Jesuits. The prompt has varied from prescribing due punishment for penitent sinners to providing advice to Christians faced with moral ambiguity.

censorship

attempt to identify and control the expression of views and sentiments, which are judged to be detrimental to a defended cause, by proscribing their publication. Historically, the Roman Catholic Church developed an Index of Prohibited literature and individual Protestant churches have censored all manner of reading matter. In turn, the Bible has been much censored, not least as politically challenging. Christians today may share the widespread academic judgement that censorship is often counterproductive, because it draws attention to 'forbidden fruits', which then become the more desirable. Equally, they may still seek to censor such material as invites wilful hostility to others because of their race, gender or religion.

character

now more commonly referring to person in a book or film in the sense of participant, but more substantial sense with moral connotations persists in: 'a person of real character' or requests for 'a character reference'. The notion that each individual has a distinctive character which should be nurtured and developed is taken for granted by some and challenged by others. Certainly, there is research evidence which demonstrates that actual behaviour does not always conform to how people appear or to what people say. Nevertheless, the combination of habitual inclinations and consistent intentions does convey something of a person's identity. For Christians, the model for this is the life of Jesus of Nazareth and and the communal vitality associated with him. These are sources for character building.

commandments

general term applied to orders understood as deriving from God. Obedience to them is required if order is to be achieved in a world which will otherwise be in chaos. This is the message which comes over from the early chapters of Genesis, as from what Old Testament prophets like Amos, Hosea, Isaiah and Jeremiah have to say in their criticism of Israel. It is focused in the covenant of God with Moses on Mount Sinai, as described in Exodus 19 and 20. The substance of all divine commandments is summed up by Jesus as wholehearted love of God and love of neighbour as self (Matthew 22: 37-9, 5:43-4). From time to time in the Christian tradition, the authority to command in the name of God has been claimed by the institutional church and her leaders. Responding to God has aften involved individual men and women in obeying what the church has commanded; on other occasions, however, it has led to a distinction between what in is perceived as God's order, and what church has officially claimed it to be. Hearing and recognising the authentic commands of God, and responding accordingly, bears little resemblance to what happens on military parade and much more to operating with the insights derived from a relationship of trust.

communism

social and economic order based on belief in the desirability of common ownership of property and goods. Specifically Christian examples of this are found in the gospel command to the Rich Young Man to: "sell all he has and give to the poor", in the early church in Jerusalem as described in Acts 2:44-5 and 4:32-5, throughout the history of monasticism within the church with the vow of personal poverty, and in some radical Protestant groups such as Anabaptists and Diggers. Expressly rejecting any association with religion has been the communism known as Marxist-Leninism in Eastern Europe and Maoism in China. Attempts to combine the insights of Christianity and Marxism are most influential in Liberation Theology and also found in some versions of Christian Socialism.

compromise

decision or action to achieve a desired outcome. It usually has the connotation of selling out of principles, for whatever reasons. In some instances, however, the person making the compromise may be faced with competing claims from two or more principles, each of which has bearing on a particular context. Can what they decide and do still, in its own way, be principled?

conscience

centrepoint of individual awareness of right or wrong, which may provide signals regarding what to do or not to do ("My conscience tells me I shouldn't do this"), or indicate regret at what has been done ("I feel bad about that"). Critics suggest that it is so variable from one culture to another, and between one individual and another, that it is unhelpful to rely on it in any way. In the Christian tradition dating back to Paul in the New Testament, and continually reaffirmed over the centuries, conscience is the gateway to moral and religious awareness. Its freedom is now identied in the Universal Declarartion of Human Rights as warranting protection in every country and culture, and education of conscience is a fundamental priority. See: KEY CONCEPTS Conscience

consequentialist

the form of ethical theory and moral reasoning which is especially concerned with the outcomes which follow from particular actions. These are deemed to be the true indicators of moral worth, rather than appeals to sincerity of intention and motive. Such appeals are exposed as cant in the face of human suffering which could have been averted by decisive action.

courage

individual capacity to act bravely, in spite of threats and dangers. The anxieties may relate to physical or psychological dangers. Readiness to face them is seen as demonstrated in the way that Jesus lived and died, and in the lives of many who have followed him since. Accordingly, courage is a Christian virtue. It also finds parallels in other traditions, from Roman Stoics to Buddhist Bodhisattvas.

crime

technically, an unlawful act, but sometimes used more loosely to refer to wrongdoing.

custom

taken for granted habits and routines that are part of the established way of life of any particular community or cultural group. They relate especially to such basis features of life as abluting, clothing, and eating, or playing, mating and disposal of the dead. Although not usually recognised as carriers of major moral moment, in fact at an everday level they do convey reciprocal moral values.

decalogue

title given to the Ten Commandments, as set out in Exodus 20and Deuteronomy 5: 6-21. Their concerns can be summarised as follows: 1. Don't abandon the source of all life and purpose in the interests of shorter term goals and loyalties. God really is larger than life. 2. Don't allow yourselves to be seduced by visual display, however captivating. The fullness of God is even richer. 3. Don't talk of God in ways that are careless of the reality behind the words. 4. Take care to observe regular space for rest and play, when you will not be distracted by working routines. Sabbatical time is important for everyone, if we are genuinely to appreciate the world we have been given! 5. Have regard for your parents and the community which has built you up. 6. Don't ever treat human life as cheap. 7. Don't break the trust of sexual commitment. 8. Don't take what doesn't belong to you. 9. Don't misrepresent others in gossip or distortions of the truth. 10. Don't be greedy for the possessions and experiences of others. They have been important for Jews and Christians alike. Children have often be encouraged to memorise them, hence their being displayed on the walls of some churches.

deontology

internal sense of obligation or duty which is understood as morally binding on individual and all. It is often seen as contrasting with the external outcomes emphasis of consequentialist ethics, because the weight of its argument for what is right or wrong stands independently of what happens. Critics point out that individual self-righteousness may then come only at very expensive cost to others, or more colourfully: "the road to hell is paved with good intentions". (Immanual Kant and John Rawls are among the most influential deontologists.)

destiny

notion that for individuals and/or collective groups (family, peoples, nations, etc) there is a set path for their future. The direction of the path may be externally (God, gods, fate, social conditioning) or internally (genetic inheritance, psychological drives) determined. In the Christian tradition there is tension between affirmation of individual freedom and responsibility on the one hand and divine power and prerogative on the other. Overemphasis on the latter, however deferentially intended, tends to weaken what can be expected of human initiative and effort. By contrast, undue emphasis on the former risks eliminating any direct involvement of God with the direction of an individual's life. Fundamentally, however, being free to respond in thoughts, words and action is both a precondition and an opportunity without which noone would be able show recognition that life comes to all of us as gift.

devil

personnified force of evil found in the Persian Zoroastrian background to the Jewish tradition as it developed between the Old and New Testaments. Several images become conflated in the tradition: the figure of the tempting serpent from Genesis, Lucifer a fallen angel in Isaiah, the tester of faith in Job, and in the gospels, the tempter of Jesus and destructive presence in the lives of individuals so that they lose their humanity. Demonic imagery is developed further in popular imagination over the centuries. At very least it points to the seriousness with which Christians take the reality of evil and the power which it can have in people’s lives. At worst, in its ‘Manichaean’ form, the Devil is granted equal but opposing reality to that of God, with the consequence that responsibility for evil doing is displaced away from individuals. The perennial battle against evil is the subject matter of literature from Dante to Bunyan, and C S Lewis to J K Rowling.

divine command

belief that the voice of God is behind moral prescriptions found in the Decalogue, in the moral judgements of the prophets, in the sensitivities of individual conscience. Critics dismiss this approach to ethics as "heteronomous" and against the grain of independent thinking which is a hallmark of maturity. Some versions of Christian ethics may indeed appear to promote in this way an infantile dependence on 'being told what to do'. However, the more mainstream emphasis is on the need for each individual as part of their growth to Christian adulthood to come to recognise and affirm for themselves such moral principles and insights.

duty

sense of moral obligation highlighted by Immanual Kant as distinguishing humanity from other animal beings. He speaks of it as a "categorical imperative", or distinctive drive. If we fail to attend to it, we are lesser beings than we are designed to be. Popular manifestations of this sense are found in the appeals to patriotic loyalty found in times of national crisis, or in the scouting movement's promotion of individual honour. The source of duty may stem from the feeling of belonging engendered within a nation or an association, and deliberately cultivated in such a context. Ultimately, however, it is seen by Kant as God given. Critics claim that a great many children and adults appear to lack a sense of duty of any kind. Christians respond with the conviction that it is educable.

envy

expressly identified in the Decalogue as a threat to the order of God's creation, and subsequently in the Christian tradition as one of the Seven Deadly Sins. The emotion is a common one and remarked in such adages as "Keeping up with the Jones" or "The grass is always greener on the other side". It is corrosive in so far as it tends to make self worth depend upon material acquisition. (It is a matter of debate whether a cultural emphasis on incentives has any bearing on people's susceptibility to be envious.)

equality

in Biblical perspective all people are equal in the eyes of God, irrespective of gender or status Gal 3:28, and this may give rise to political upheaval, as celebrated by Mary in anticipation of the birth of her Son Luke 3:46-55 ‘The Magnificat’. However, in the course of the history of the churches, there has been both deference to wealth and position and search for radical equality. On the one hand, there has been: "The rich man in his castle, the poor man at his gate. God made them, high or lowly, and ordered their estate." On the other hand, successive generations of monks and nuns have abandoned all worldly goods and status to affirm a condition of equal sharing. Variations in abilities between individuals means that their strengths and weaknesses, their needs and capacities, can be quite different. Christians recognise that. Equality cannot therefore in Christian perspective entail literal sameness, but it must include a bias to the poor.

evil

this is generally understood to be the opposite of what works for human good. In the case of the ravages of floods, earthquakes, famine and disease, the evil results are not usually the work of human beings, although they can be accentuated or ameliorated by human action. In the case of the death and destruction, which arises from war and exploitation one of another, it is a different matter. Men, women and indeed children are individually capable of evil of varying degrees of seriousness (from malicious gossip to child murdering). It may result from major acts of barbarism, using large-scale explosive power, or from acts and omissions, as simple as carrying out a routine order or looking the other way. Both kinds of evil, whether arising from nature or from human volition, challenge belief in God as loving, just and morally creative. Christianity recognises its reality on both fronts. It cannot explain it fully, though it sees it originating in part from human freedom. Evil may find extreme embodiment in particular individuals, who are dehumanised in the process. In the end, however, Christians believe that its force is spent, overcome by the love that suffers at the heart of all history and evolution, and will be seen to be so.

fairness

deep-felt moral sense that the outcome of what is said or done should not be advantageous/disadvantageous to one person more than to another. In spite of any pursuit of self-interest, which children manifest from earliest years, they also show a capacity to recognise when something is unfair. This is at the root of the more elaborated concepts of justice and natural law. I

fallenness

description given to the human condition ‘after the Fall’. According to the creation stories in Genesis 1-3, aboriginal humanity as found in Adam and Eve was in a state of innocence. However, this was lost from the moment their appetites for wider knowledge were aroused. Whatever form human life might have taken before such a Fall, scientific discovery and sexual experience are fundamental to human civilisation. Within their terms, as within the whole of life, there is powerful ambiguity. Throughout history, we have had the capacity for great good and for great evil. This is magnified by technology. ‘After the apple’ there is no avoiding of ambiguity in all aspects of life. The challenge is to be morally creative with the power we now have, personally, socially and politically.

fate

though used simply to refer to the outcome of an examination or trial, when I learn my fate, it has also the altogether more weighty connotation of long term prospects, as in destiny. In this latter sense some act of judgement may be involved weighing the life lived in this world as predeterminative of what will happen after death. There is resistance from Christians to any suggestion that an individual's life is controlled by planetary forces, as implied by astrology. This is seen as an abdication of personal responsibility to take charge of how each life is lived. Thus, horoscopes may be amusing distractions or suggestive invitations, but they only take on any determining force if we co-operate in granting them that authority.

fellowship

close sense of association between Christians from earliest New Testament times, as referred to in Paul’s letters and the Acts. ‘Koinonia’, the word in NT Greek, is variously used to convey a sense of intimacy with God, of communion with others in the church as the body of Christ, and of sharing in the eucharistic life of sacrifice. Its radical qualities included its being fully comprehensive of all sorts and conditions of men and women (Roman citizens/slaves, Jews/non-Jews) and extending to a special relationship with the poor (Romans 15:26). These are all features which Christian congregational life has been called to emulate, but only sometimes been successful in achieving.

forgiveness

readiness to accept someone in spite of what they have said or done. There is clear expectation from the earliest years of the Christian tradition that this should be done. "Forgive us our trespasses, as we forgive those who trespass against us." Whilst no-one is beyond God's forgiveness, this is not an invitation to trespass more and more. It is much more an indication of the opportunity to be transformed, changed by the process of being accepted and accepting.

fraternity

In his letters in the NT, Paul regularly addresses his fellow Christians as "brothers and sisters" and this has persisted over the centuries. It carried over into the trade union movement, reflecting its Christian inspiration; members met in their branches known as chapels and used the terminology of brothers.

free will

that humans have free will is a precondition of their capacity to respond to the call of the gospel and to be enriched by love. However, the extent of this freedom is daily called in question first by the power of sin which is understood an enslaving, and secondly by the allpowerfulness of God. According to the Christian gospel, thanks to God being God as met in Jesus of Nazareth, the constraining hold of sin is defeated and so also is any thought that divine omnipotence is not desirous of the willing responses of individuals.

freedom

quality of life associated with human life at its best. People are free from external constraints and for being truly themselves. In OT terms, the people of Israel are liberated from the oppression of exile in Egypt or Babylon. In the NT, according to the gospels those who respond are free from fear, from invasive forces; according to Paul, they are free from the letter of the law and from the drives of sin. The new condition is characteristic of being true sons and daughters of God/the kingdom. "Liberty, equality and fraternity" the famous cry of the French revolution was already inscribed on the outer portals of churches, just as they were visible in the Puritan aspirations that created a commonwealth in England and sailed to create the kingdom of God in America. They are hallmarks of God's order for humanity.

grace

the most basic fact of all life – its given-ness. Life comes to each of us as a gift from a source beyond ourselves, beyond our parents and beyond even their parents’ parents. It is not earned. This fact may be so fundamental to our very being that it simply becomes part of ordinary routine and overlooked in its extraordinariness. By contrast, appreciation of it may inspire an attitude of general thankfulness. For Christians, the spirit of generous giving is structured into all of life, being expressive of the love of God as manifest in all creation, in Jesus’ defeat of division and death, and in the communal transformation which is yet ahead for everyone.

gratitude

being thankful and showing it, even though such appreciation is not expected. Its absence or presence may be diminishing or enlivening of the person involved. In a gospel story of healing, it is expressed by someone who is a foreigner and from a different religious tradition, whilst yet missing from the advantaged majority (Luke 17:11-19).

greed

known also as avarice, and identified in church tradition as one of the Seven Deadly Sins. Though typified by the picture of over-eating and other self-serving material accumulation, it may equally be expressed in the ‘over-hogging’ of attention and affection from others. Release from it comes the more easily once it is recognised for what it is by the person who is distorted by it. Though more commonly perceived as an individual condition, critics of the ‘developed’ world suggest that it is widely pervasive within that wider culture.

guilt

responsibility for words or actions which lead to negative consequences. In criminal law, the verdict of ‘guilty’ is the occasion for determining an appropriate punishment. Moral guilt may overlap with the legal condition, but has a more extensive frame of reference. There is some evidence that individuals can suffer from an exaggerated sense of guilt, which goes beyond that which it is realistic for them to feel. Equally, there are others who appear to be largely lacking of any such sense, even when sign of it would be highly appropriate. (Thus, ‘psychopathic’ behaviour is associated with individuals who may be described as ‘conscience-less’, a condition, which may be socially or genetically induced.)

habit

patterns of behaviour which become established as ways in which a person operates, both individually and socially. According to social scientists, they may genetically inherited, family induced, or culturally copied, and it is likely that we will be more conscious of some than others. They include such features as how we walk and how we greet others, the sequence with which we begin or end the day (even, within that, how we wash, dress, undress), the TV programmes we watch and how we position ourselves whilst watching them. Habitual routines, as with the habits worn by monks, give shape to our identities. As such, they are capable of being aids to survival or oppressive routines. They can be stimulating or dulling, authentic or deceiving. Like the praying for which they usually provide the medium, they can tune to deeper engagement or reinforce a state of being that is oblivious to its own isolation.

happiness

this is not a term which has been extensively used in the Christian tradition. It has been most strongly deployed within utilitarian thinking, which has promoted it as the absence of pain and the most desirable end in terms of which to weigh the rights and wrongs of particular actions. This is the measure of the ‘Felicific Calculus’. The appeal of ‘happiness’ is also pervasive in popular culture (so the theatrical: “Is everybody happy?”). Critics, however, remark that ‘right and wrong’ is a more reliable currency than being happy. Duty and self-sacrificial love may actually entail some real unhappiness. Perhaps the contrast is overplayed? According to John’s gospel, Jesus actually uses the word ‘happy’ of the person who washes another’s feet (13:17). Two other words have related currency for Christians. One is that of ‘blessedness’ as found in ‘the Beatitudes’ (Matthew 5), and the other ‘gladness’, associated with the shared delight and vitality found in this man Jesus.

heaven and hell

the conviction that everyone is accountable for their thoughts, deeds and words throughout their lives, with the consequence that this will be reflected in experience which goes beyond death, and which is both personal and communal. Thus, from Matthew 25 there is the ultimate checkout of how each person has responded to God in the lives around them. The Christian hope is rooted in the risen life of Jesus after his crucifixion. It is believed by some to be corroborated by extensive reports of people describing near death experiences. The language available to speak of what is involved remains largely speculative, although the medieval imagery from Dante’s Divine Comedy or the paintings on church murals and from the likes of Hieronymous Bosch are graphic in their representations of both torture and bliss. Hell remains a powerful affirmation of just how dangerously real is evil and the contributory failure to do good. They require all the available energies of suffering love for them to be finally defeated.

holiness

quality associated with closeness to God. This is reflected in the word ‘hierarchy’, with ‘hieros’ meaning holy/sacred, and a rank ordering of nearness to or distance from the most sacred. In Biblical tradition, holiness is more centrally associated with a sense of moral unworthiness as experienced by the succession of prophets in their being called by God – from Moses (Exodus 3 and Isaiah (6:1-6) through to John the Baptist (Matthew 3:1-17).

hope

sense of direction and purpose which is fundamental to a Christian world view. It runs through the lives of individuals and the entire universe, providing long-term meaning and the confidence that there is yet more fulfilment ahead. Contrary to some critical comment it is neither illusory (so Freud) nor escapist in a compensatory way (so Marx), but finding its future through being utterly realistic about the present. Thus it already engages with the spirit of God’s new order (‘the Kingdom’) as it is continually surfacing throughout the world

humanism

affirmation of the importance of humanity, as articulated in the theological sharing between Muslims, Jews and Christians in medieval Christendom. Subsequently, most especially in the 19th and 20th centuries, it has been promoted as ‘secular’ and contrasted with any religious humanism. This is now the predominant usage, with the connotation of being a non-theistic life stance. Whereas some humanists of ‘secularist’ inclinations would make strong assertion of the falsity of any and all religion, others acknowledge that different journeys of faith are being legitimately pursued both by those who call themselves religious and those who do not.

individualism

tendency to view the interests of the individual as more important than those of any group, whether family, friendship, political professional, or sports based.

inhibition

deeply felt emotional block which prevents someone from saying or doing certain things. It is usually regarded as ‘irrational’ and, like blushing, not easily within the person’s control. On occasion it may be seen and/or experienced as over-sensitive and a negative condition from which it is desirable to seek release. By contrast, the state of ‘lacking all inhibitions’ may entail gross insensitivity.

intention

the meaning intended by what is said or done may be different from the outward impression given. The stress on genuineness of purpose and intent, found generally in the Christian tradition, corresponds directly with one of the most striking features of Jesus as presented in the gospels: his strong dislike of self-righteous hypocrisy. Purity of heart matters, but not to the point of social consequences ceasing to matter. Loving intentions need to be matched with appropriate actions. Christian appreciation of the ambiguity associated with the relative importance of words or deeds is reflected in the rival adages: ‘it’s the thought that counts’, yet ‘actions speak louder than words'.

intuition

inner sense or ‘gut feeling’ about someone or something. It is found alongside conclusions that are arrived at by public logic. The experience is more strongly developed in some people than others, but evidence for a preponderant gender base (‘female intuition’) is questionable. It is sometimes associated with the sense of guilt or shame, which may be hallmarks of conscience. Rather than relegating it to a second division aspect of human response and moral judgement, it may be wiser to see it as a complementary mode of understanding and reasoning.

jealousy

powerful feeling of possessiveness, usually related to rival claims for the recognition or affection of another person. The sense of ownership, which is offended is morally dubious, in that it implies that one person has rights over another which are more appropriate for property than personal relationships. However, where real, rather than imagined, betrayal of trust is involved the hurt felt may be very understandable. It is feasible to be jealously protective and supportive of another’s interests, even when they conflict with the preferences of the person who is presuming to act in this way. It is in this sense of that the word is sometimes used of God, protecting the interests of all humanity.

judgement

the connotation of negative judging and condemnation of people is found in the Christian tradition, but arguably is out of place as a Christian attitude. “Judge not, that you be not judged” (Matthew 7:1, “Let whoever is without sin throw the first stone” (John 7:7) is a clear message from the New Testament. Tradition has gone on to prefer to speak of judging the offence rather than the person. Nevertheless, there remains a central conviction that all life falls within the gaze of God (‘sub specie aeternitatis’), and does so with its every waking and sleeping aspect, past, present and future. The parables in the gospels present a direct invitation to everyone who hears them to be alert to the significance of each moment, and to judge for themselves within it.

justice

this is a priority value which is fundamental to both Testaments of the Bible, as also to subsequent Christian tradition. ‘Mishpat’ (the Hebrew word translated as justice) is expressly promoted in the Torah/first five books of the Old Testament, and it is equally central to the writings of the Prophets and of Wisdom. It is by this criterion that Israel itself is found wanting by God. As in the New Testament, so throughout the history of the church, there has been deference both to justice as known in Israel and in the Roman and later secular world. In so far as religious law, national/imperial law, or international law are frameworks for interpreting and applying God’s justice in the world, they have all been given due attention. From time to time however Christians have been mindful of the other priority values of love and forgiveness/mercy. They have not been seen as obliterating the claims of law, or challenging the language of justice. However, whilst underwriting them, they have often made for qualifications and transformations.

justification

in the writings of Paul in the New Testament, as in those of the Luther, Calvin and other Protestant Reformers, much is made of the importance of ‘justification by faith’. Basically, they make the common assertion that human striving is no basis in itself for oneness with God. That comes as a gracious gift, to which we respond, consciously or negatively, as we do. In contemporary culture, the language is different. There may be talk of ‘making it’, ‘proving yourself’, ‘demonstrating your worth’, or showing weaknesses and failings in any of these respects. According to the Christian ‘big picture’, human worth is already given. Flowing from this, the resourcing energy, from beyond ourselves, for both work and play, is there for anyone to draw on.

Kingdom of God

key feature of the message presented by Jesus according to the gospels. It derives from his background in the Jewish prophetic tradition which drew attention to the difference between the order and rule of God and that which prevailed in Israel and the wider world. Some have tried to ‘spiritualise’ it and suggest that Jesus was primarily concerned with inward transformation of individuals. Others have attempted an exclusively political agenda, after the fashion of first century Zealots. The background language of both the Old and New Testaments indicate that this is a false polarisation. The signs of God’s rule include peace and justice, healing and reconciliation, joy and forgiveness. God’s politics are transformative on every front.

laziness

known in Christian tradition as sloth and identified as one of the deadliest of sins. Its connotation includes lack of effort; not so much enjoying a ‘lie-in’, as being indifferent in a shrugging off any involvement with others. It misses out on both enjoyment and the seriousness of resolve.

love

attitude of heart and mind expressive of the goodness of God and found consistently in the Jesus as imitated in the individual and communal lives of Christians over the centuries. It is different from filial and familial affection; though it is not dismissive of them. It is also different from erotic affection; though, again, there is no necessary undervaluing of that. In New Testament Greek, the term is ‘agape’. This is sometimes translated as charity or compassion, or anglicised to involve commitment to an agapeistic way of life. This entails altruism and a neighbourliness which is extended both locally and globally. The eucharist or communion meal has sometimes been referred to in this sense as a ‘love feast’

malice

ill-will towards another, sometimes aroused by feelings of resentment or grudge, leading often to deliberate harming. Quite an opposite of love.

motivation

internal will or drive for the actions of an individual person. Though primarily seen as involving conscious intent, it may also be affected by unconscious needs/interests. This mix of different elements leads some critical observers to doubt the existence of altruism. It remains the case that motivation is commonly driven by different degrees of consideration.for both self and others.

mysticism

heightened state of awareness in which the person’s perception of reality is extended beyond its usual condition. It may be sought in acts of contemplative prayer and meditation, but is also reported as ‘entrancing’ without warning or premeditation, prompted or accompanied by verbal or visual triggers. The incidence of mystical experience is now acknowledged not to be confined to a ‘musical few’, but to be found quite widely amongst people generally, with abundant examples of ecstasy, in religious and secular, sacred and profane forms. The contrast between a ‘this-worldly’ orientation represented by prophets, and an ‘other-worldly’ orientation of mystics has some validity, but these two modes may also be combined.

natural law

notion that there is an order for personal and social life ‘grained into’ human beings. In New Testament expression, this resonates with both Jewish and Stoic thinking, though it is the latter, which is most frequently acknowledged. It is challenged by philosophers and social scientists, who draw attention to cultural diversity and to the unreliability of jumping from what ‘is’ to what ‘ought to be’. Similarly, some Christians stress instead the independent Revelation from God in Christ as the only source of any true law. That said, trust in ‘common’ sense resonates across different cultures and across the centuries. So too does, the hunch or judgement that there’s a universal wrongness about murder or incest. Accordingly, it is no surprise to find that other Christians point out the readiness of both Jesus and his prophetic forbears to appeal to both natural and historical experience for God-given insights.

pacifism

commitment to achieving peace by non-violent methods. Even though personal suffering may follow, it refuses to use physical force in defence against attack. In the Christian tradition, it takes its lead from the unilateral loving seen in Jesus. Pacifists are found in all the different denominations of the church, but are especially characteristic of the Quakers.

peace

greatly desirable state of harmony, represented in Hebrew by ‘shalom’ and Latin by ‘pax’. Biblical perspectives are not naïve regarding the ease with which it can be achieved. For instance, Jeremiah warns against announcing it when it has not yet been realised and, instead, abusive corruption lurks beneath the social surface (Jer: 6:14). The words of Jesus also make it very clear that such are the demands of the gospel that it too can lead to social disharmony. Nevertheless, the ‘communion of saints’ found in the early church in Jerusalem (Acts 2:42-7) and prized in the official creeds, or again the Reformation notion of ‘commonwealth’, all celebrate the desirability of generalised human friendship and an end to violence.

perfectionism

tendency to look for everything to be correct in every detail. This may be more appropriate and achievable in some areas of life (eg arithmetic) than in others, and in any case according to the New Testament (Mathew 19:16) perfect goodness is found only in God. Even so, to seek to become perfect, complete and whole remains a Christian priority. Somewhat extreme examples of this are found in the lives of those who in the interests of realising perfect simplicity chose to live for many years on small platforms atop high columns. They were remarkable in this with the effect, whether or not intended, of drawing attention to themselves, but thereby running the risk of pride and self-righteousness, which the gospels so clearly repudiate. A more ordinary endeavour for individuals to become more fully themselves in community with others presents its own challenges. It also carries with it a hope of transformation as a gift from God.

pragmatism

in everyday usage this is a mindset which opts for what is most easily achieved with minimum of direct hurt. It is contrasted with any approach which wishes to give additional weighting to ideals and objectives which are less easily met. More formally, Pragmatism is expounded as a distinctive philosophy by the likes of William James and John Dewey in N. America. It emphasises contextual considerations in making moral judgements, and readiness to rethink and change positions as circumstances evolve.

pride

not to be confused with self-respect, by which due regard is given to personal standing, pride involves preoccupation with appearance and achievements of the self to the exclusion of others. It is sometimes represented by the preening vanity of the peacock. Because of the tendency to take the self too seriously, it does not like criticism and is especially vulnerable to humour. Its traditional status as one of the 7 Deadly Sins reflects in selfish exclusivity, which threaten to pervert the thrill of human competence from what it actually achieves.

progress

sense of direction in life as applied to both individual and collective experience. Darwin’s theory of biological evolution has a counterpart in the thinking of Marx and other 19th century social scientists who saw in history a patterned sociologic, determinedly driving humankind towards a better future. Christian understanding of human limitations is suspicious of such expectations, especially when they are used to excuse somewhat inhuman actions in the interim to accelerate towards the desired end. However, Christianity displays its own continual hope for all the life, which comes from God and is drawn and growing towards God. Any view that the world is inexorably deteriorating derives its inspiration from elsewhere.

prophets

not to be confused with the writers of horoscopes. They are best known and represented by the Jewish teachers who challenged the established social and religious order of the day as having lost its theological vision and because of this, fallen into injustice and hypocrisy. The Old Testament books of Amos, Hosea and Isaiah, originating 2800 years ago, convey the vitality of a tradition, which continued into Christianity with John the Baptist and Jesus himself, and into Islam with Mohammad. Its force is perhaps most tangible when whole sections are read out loud. The challenge to interpreters of any of these prophets, as to any would be prophets today, is simultaneously to understand society, as it really is, whilst also knowing the heart of God.

prudence

attitude and mind-set which is carefully cautious before decisions and actions are made. Likely consequences are weighed, along with the interests served to self and others. Identified by tradition as a virtue, hence its periodic popularity as a first name, and punned in the film title: Prudence and the Pill.

puritanism

historically this is a reformer movement in 16th and 17th century Christianity, by men and women, who took seriously their calling as Christians to assist in bringing in the Kingdom of God. It is typified by the zeal of Oliver Cromwell and the New Model Army in England to transform the kingdom into a commonwealth and of the 'Pilgrim Fathers' in north America seeking to create this new order in a new world. The connotation of ' straightjacketed' joylessness overlooks the exuberance of communal life in the spirit, which was its daily characteristic.

relativism

view that beliefs and values reflect the particular times and places in which they are held. Instead of their lasting for all time and applying universally, they are subject to social and cultural conditioning. This was the conclusion of some philosophers, both Greek and Indian, going back over two thousand years: change and diversity are omnipresent. It has been reinforced by the observations of cultural anthropologists and globe trotting tourists. However, other philosophers and social scientists draw attenion instead to constants and continuities.

repentance

sense of regret about previous mode of living and actions associated with it, accompanied by determination to think and behave differently in the future. Decision involved may be deeply transformative for the person(s) involved. Such revolutionary implications were fundamental to the use of the term by John the Baptist, drawing on the earlier language of the prophets, who called on Israel to re-order its life radically in keeping with the justice and generous-heartedness known in God.

responsibility

ownership of what is said and done by an individual or wider agency. This may be qualified by a variety of contributory factors, but these do not 'explain away' the element of decision which rests with the person(s) speaking or acting. 'Respond-ability' is a capacity, which is strongly emphasised in Christian tradition as intrinsic to personal identity. The importance of other determinants, whether psychological or sociological, is also acknowledged, but their magnification is seen as threatening to humanity.

revelation

experience of knowledge coming to an individual in some sense 'from beyond'. This is pictured as 'the light dawning' or 'a flash of inspiration' with its source not calculatingly controlled. It is often seen as the special characteristic of the Bible, both as containing the words revealed by God to the prophets and by Jesus during his ministry, and as overall the Word of God. The characterisation as 'Sacred Scripture', however, also applies to words and writings in other religious traditions. The source of such Revelation may be perceived as coming from outside the recipient; this is how it is most commonly presented in Christianity, as well as Judaism and Islam. It is also presented as coming from meditational depths inside the recipient, who like the Buddha finds Enlightenment. The Enlightenment associated with western philosophers, makes much of its preference for the light shed by internal reason. That can be presented as an order of knowledge entirely different from that which is known from scripture or mystical experience. Similarly, 'religious insiders' may sometimes stress the specialness of the Revelation, which they have received, as being of a totally different order from anything else which is known. The challenge for anyone involved in making moral judgements is how to interpret and apply revelatory insights of any kind in the present moment.

rights

the attribution of prerogatives to a person or persons as belonging properly to them. Their source may derived from being granted in law by an agreed contract between the parties concerned, as in the case of borrowings and purchases, employment, education and health care. Commercial companies, local authorities, and governments all accept the responsibilities of meeting specified contractual obligations. A broader range of 'human rights' was affirmed by the international community in 1948, with the Universal Declaration of Human Rights proclaimed by the UN. This has been incorporated in the laws of the European Community, and is in process of being internalised by its national governments. Such rights are specified in the constitution of the United States, as belonging to all its citizens. Not all countries support this notion. For instance, for somewhat different reasons, a political ideology (eg communism) or a religious frame of reference (eg some manifestations of Islam) may give less priority to an individual's position than to that of the community to which s/he belongs. An older tradition, sometimes referring to 'natural rights', has also existed, in which the rights are seen as inalienably human and God-given. Such is the 'Noachic Covenant' (deriving from Noah) tradition, which embraces all humanity and ' every living thing'. In this perspective, certain responsibilities follow for people to live with. The notion of animal rights has been given much attention in recent years. They are derived from consensual agreement on the part of society generally, as it were extending the circle of human recognition to other animal species. Alternatively, they may derive from some form of religious justification. Whatever the source, there is dispute over which living entities are included (rats? fish? mosquitoes?) and the extent of the rights accorded to them (food? conducive environment? survival?).

Sermon on the Mount

chapters 5-7 of Matthew's gospel, in which Jesus' teaching takes the form of a series of commendations and stories. The commendations or blessings are given to individuals for qualities, which might go unremarked in a national honours list. The examples and stories are invitations to enter into a new way of living and being, such as corresponds with the new order of God's politics. The mountain setting is often seen as pointing up a parallel with Mount Sinai where the commandments were given to Moses; now a greater than Moses calls for a radical response to the demands of legal dispensation.

sin

wrongdoing in religious perspective and not just illegal (against the law), or immoral (against what 'ought' to be). In Christian tradition it involves falling short from what is intended by God for our humanity at its individual or collective best. Thus the term has two aspects. It refers to a general condition, which may be translated as 'alienation' (so Hegel) or estrangement (so Tillich). On this account, we are estranged from each other, from ourselves and from God. Accordingly, we lack wholeness and in this fractured condition may be even more susceptible to specific sins. This second aspect of the term has been exemplified in the sevenfold form of deadly sins, such as greed, lust and pride. Again, by custom, some are more easily forgivable (venial) than others (mortal). Jesus' teaching in the Sermon on the Mount removes the basis for anyone to think that they are free from any sinning. Murder and thieving may be primary measures with which the law works. The true law, however, is deeper and more exposing than that. It extends to the thoughts and feelings, which go on inside us.

situation ethics

a way of approaching moral decision-making, which emphasises the need to be sensitive to the immediate context. This is contrasted with what is seen as the danger of 'automatic' application of principles. Principles still matter, but 'circumstances alter cases', especially if the chief ruler is seen as love. Whereas on some reckonings, the teaching and rules of scripture or church councils might be seen by Christians as absolute, this approach was readier, in almost fashion, to take account of consequences in almost utilitarian fashion. The approach was popularised in the USA and UK by Joseph Fletcher, an Anglican/Episcopalian moral theologian. However, it is directly linked with the long-standing wealth of Christian moral reflection and judgement known as casuistry.

sloth

this is one of the 7 Deadly Sins. As such it has little to do with the laziness of not getting out of bed in a morning. It has much more to do with carelessness and indifference. Not engaging with what is going on in the world and with the interests of others is a 'cop-out' that is far from the demands of the gospel.

temptation

the experience of being attracted to some action, the outcome of which might be dangerous or hurtful to the performer and/or others involved. However, it might not be. Facing temptation and using it as a foil with which to test an ambition, an interest, and the road ahead may actually lead to greater clarity and wisdom. Temptation may need to be resisted, but the form it takes and what would be involved in succombing to it require careful moral scrutiny.

theonomy

a term used to identify a distinctive approach to ethics, which gains its meaning by contrast with 'autonomy' and 'heteronomy'. Christian ethics would be heteronomous if they were understood to derive their authority simply from divine decree, in church, Bible, or individual conscience, without any attempt to think them through in terms of human understanding. As such they would be protested against by advocates of the autonomy of ethics. These would insist that if the human race is ever to escape from its collective childhood, it needs to enable all its members to be independent and to able to think rationally for themselves. One Christian response to this is that the pursuit of reason, as of knowledge and understanding, is not by definition 'against God'. On the contrary, reasoned argument in its own terms, and as combined with the sources and resources in the Christian tradition for making moral judgement, promotes human integrity. It does this in a way that is open to its own depths and to wider inspiration. As such, it is 'theonomous'.

toleration

readiness to take account of the needs and interests of others. It involves being open and listening and, at least initially, accepting them in their own terms. It does not necessarily entail receiving all that another says or does uncritically. That would involve an inappropriate abdication of personal presence from the meeting with the other on the part of the person showing tolerance. A commitment to mutual understanding, which is at the heart of genuine tolerance, makes demands on all parties. Although no forceful imposition or rejection of the other's beliefs will be involved, the demands may involve challenge to deeply held beliefs and values.

truth-telling

Even though the incidence of lying is commonplace, the importance of telling the truth is universally acknowledged, across almost all societies and cultures. If this were not perceived as a desirable norm, the fabric of personal and communal life would be in jeopardy. For Christians, this is the more attractive because God is understood as the source of all truth. Misrepresentation is therefore a distortion not only of the interests of others, but of the very being of God. Even if apparently successful, attempts hurtfully to deceive are fruitless and cannot ultimately succeed. However, telling the truth to someone may involve some degree of 'translation'. Some words, when reported literally, can be heard as destructive when not originally intended to be. In this respect the person telling the truth does well to anticipate how its substance can best be conveyed.

value judgement

assessments made regarding the worth objects or persons and anything expressed by them. They are based on different frames of reference. Comment on the beauty or otherwise of music, dance and painting involves aesthetic value judgement. Comment on the correctness of some arithmatical calculation involves mathematical value judgement. That someone did nor did not break the law, is a legal value judgement. That someone has behaved rightly and wrongly is a moral value judgement. That they have been sinful or otherwise is a religious moral judgement. Although people are involved in making judgements from their childhood years, the extent to which they are fully conscious of all the different value frames and their respective criteria is quite varied.

vice

may refer to a particular act of immorality, often identified with particular forms of sexual behaviour. More generically it is to a cluster of actions which are identified as reflecting a propensity towards which someone has become habituated, such as tobacco smoking.

virginity

sexual innocence, most commonly understood as referring to the physically intact state of a female prior to sexual penetration, and by implication to the male prior to his engagement in full sexual intercourse. Pre-coital and other forms of sexual activity may also involve loss of sexual innocence. To insist that someone has retained their virginity in spite of such activity, may be technically true, but also 'Clintonesque' in its self-deception. In a culture which is sexually 'heavy laden', imitative songs, gestures and TV change the face of innocence from a very early age. In Christian perspective, both sexual innocence and sexual fulfilment are prized as a God-given means for expressing personal integrity.

virtue

traditionally there have been four cardinal/principal virtues: prudence, justice, self-control, courage (so Plato). To these have been added three theological virtues: faith, hope and love (so Aquinas). These offset the equivalent number of Deadly Sins. No less important for Christians is the listing of virtuous qualities in Paul's New Testament writings: compassion, kindness, humility, gentleness, patience, forgiveness, gratitude (Colossians 3:12-17). It has been argued by Alistair MacIntyre that, in recent times, genuine appreciation of the meaning and worth of virtue, as of any commonly shared moral discourse, is fading fast. Where it is sustained, he says, it is within particular moral communities.

vocation

sense of purpose and meaning in life derived, at least in part, from convictions which go beyond immediate reasoning. In biblical tradition, prophets were called, so were the People of Israel and the individuals who responded to the opportunities for a new way of life presented by Jesus. In church tradition, it came to be especially associated with monastic and priestly callings. Its wider connotation as applying to the responsive lives of all Christians links it with the personal challenge to every person, by virtue of being human, to achieve particular meaning and purpose for themselves and others.